Hands, Movement and Trade

How trade over a language barrier influences the use of hand-gestures

The use of hand gestures is increased by the need to trade over a language barrier.  Effective and clear communication is a requirement for successful trade and a language barrier can be a severe hindrance. In the absence of an interpreter, hand gestures improve understanding between traders who share no common language. When interpreters are present, gestures improve clarity and add nuance. The past offers numerous examples, but contemporary trade still benefits from gesture.

Before properly beginning, it is important to get a few definitions out of the way.

TRADE. For the purposes of this essay, we will define trade very broadly as any interaction where two or more people exchange goods or services, where goods can include raw resources, commodities, finished products, or anything of arbitrary value and services include anything anyone does for someone else. Our modern examples will focus particularly on medical services.

HAND GESTURE. For this essay, hand gestures are any use of the hands to communicate something without speech or to augment the meaning of speech. A raised middle finger qualifies, as would any “language” comprised entirely of gesture.

COMPLEXITY. Lacking a quantitative definition of what it means for hand gestures to be more or less complex, we will define complexity in terms of a spectrum starting with hand gestures such as pointing towards an object and ending at complex systems of communication such as ASL. We will also take into account how much knowledge and context are required to understand the gesture.

NON-TRADE GESTURES. This essay will concentrate on commercial communications, but gesture use is not exclusive to economic exchanges. The same gesture could mean “Eat this sandwich” and “Take this pill by mouth” depending on context.

The distinction between Non-Trade Gestures and Gestures used for trade is important because this paper does not argue that trade is the source of hand gestures as evidence shows that this is not the case. While their ultimate origin is disputed research suggests that it is in some capacity related to the origins of language. Michael C. Corballis’s paper The Gestural Origins of Language: Human language may have evolved from manual gestures, which survive today as a “behavioral fossil” coupled to speech suggests the theory that verbal language evolved out of hand gestures

language emerged not from vocalization, but from manual gestures, and switched to a vocal mode relatively recently in hominid evolution, perhaps with the emergence of H. sapiens. This idea was suggested by the 17th-century French philosopher Etienne Condillacand revived in the 1970s by the American anthropologist Gordon W. Hewes.

another paper The functional origins of speech-related hand gestures by Ian Q. Whishaw, Lori-Ann R. Sacrey, Scott G. Travis, Gita Gholamrezaei, Jenni M. Karl also suggests that hand gestures and verbal speech have similar origins.

The embodied language theory, however, in proposing that language includes gestures, provides an avenue for tracing language origins to phylogenetically earlier ancestral species. Here, evidence is presented that the structure of functional hand movements (e.g., reaching for food, climbing a ladder, or crawling), in rats and humans is similar. The structure of these functional hand movements is then compared to speech-related hand gestures in humans. The sequence of language-related gestures are also found to be characteristic of functional hand movements. It is suggested that these findings show that the arm and hand gestures that accompany human speech are derived from the same neural substrates that produce functional movements…Together, this evidence suggests that speech-related hand gestures have their evolutionary origins in functional hand movements of ancestral non-primate and primate species and may be constrained by the neural substrate for those movements.

This paper does not argue for or against either of these theories. It only argues that as trade between two or more cultures increases, the complexity of the hand gestures used also increases.

The model of high-context and low-context communication as described in Beyond Borders: An In-depth Analysis of Cultural Variances in Non-Verbal Communication Through Gestures and Hands and developed by Ekman & Friesen, helps to explain why. High-context communication relies on more non-verbal cues while low-context communication relies on verbal communication. when two people who do not share a language interact, they are forced to rely on context rather than verbal communication. I argue that in the initial stages of contact between cultures they are forced to rely on more basic hand gestures, as contact progresses, they will begin to learn each other’s language as well as each other’s gestures, perhaps even developing a system of trade specific hand gestures.

Some people may argue against this idea on the basis that hand gestures are culture specific. as a result of this, people from two different cultures may have no idea what another gesture means. It is indeed true that many gestures are culture specific for example many of the hand gestures listed by William S. King required explanations as to what they means.

The “bull sign” is the same gesture as the mano cornuta. (See Andrea de Jorio, La mimica degli antichi investigata nel gestire napoletano [Naples, 1832].) The local gesture, made by closing the second and third fingers of the hand, leaving the index and little fingers extended, is used by the gesturer to indicate that his credulity is being tried. This symbol is supposed to represent the horns of a bull, and the gesture is often accompanied by the expression “Bull–.”

A fairly common symbol on this campus is made by pointing the forefingers of both hands and placing them along the temples, pointing upward. If the person to whom the gesture is directed is unaware of its meaning, he will invariably ask. The gesturer then relates the following story.
“There was once a queen ant who sent out some workers to gather food for the winter. Two very diligent ants found a ball of horse manure and laboriously pushed it toward the nest. The queen ant saw them appear with their burden over the rise directly above the nest, and, fearing the load might get away from them and roll into the entrance-hole, excitedly waved her antennae. The signal she gave means in ant language ‘stop that —.’ ”
The fingers along side of the head represent the queen ant’s antennae. This gesture, like the “bull sign,” is directed toward people suspected of stretching the truth

Maurice H. Krout’s paper Understanding Human Gestures also provides examples of culture specific gestures

Gestural expression was common among North American Indians. They had thousands of signs to convey meaning without sound, but other peoples have also used gestures for this purpose. The natives of Timbuctoo place two fingers astride a finger of the other hand to indicate riding. Similarly, when they press a heavy head against an open hand, theymean “Go to sleep.” Closing the fist with the thumb between the index and middle fingers indicates derision among certain Europeans. Turning the back and lifting the skirt is a sign of disrespect among the French and others. Throwing the head back and making a chucking noise with the tongue signifies negation among Turks. Massaging the abdomen to show satisfaction was common among Indians, and is still imitated by our youngsters. The Ainus of Japan lightly tap the nose or the mouth to express surprise

Krout goes on to explain his view of how these more culture specific gestures came to be.

J.F. Dashiell has traced these conventional gestures to meaningful acts which were gradually reduced to a few simple movements for convenience in communication. Thus crossing fingers is probably the easiest way to symbolize a cross, and for that reason has been used to challenge the authority of the dark and evil powers. Shaking a finger at some one, likewise, originated from the act of shaking up offenders who had placed others in an angry mood. Clenching the fist is probably an abbreviation of the act of striking. Beckoning to some one is a remnant of the act of pulling people by force. Waving the hand sideways can be traced to the act of pushing others bodily aside. All these gestures are thus conveniences which are understood only because they had been fully expressed at one time.

It is true that cultures often have specific gestures which only they understand, but mountains of evidence gathered throughout time demonstrate that gestures can be used for a universal understanding.

The use of hand gestures in cross cultural interactions is well attested to throughout history.  Gordon W Hewes’s paper, Gesture Language in Culture Contact provides a good compilation of such examples.  Hewes reaches back to antiquity for his examples, such as this one from Xenophon’s The March Up Country about using hand gestures to communicate with locals:

When they reached Cheirosophos, they found them in their quarters, garlanded with hay and served by Armenian boys in their native costume; they made signs to the boys as if they were deaf and dumb to show what they wanted.

Hewes also provides various examples of European sailors coming into contact with indigenous peoples. Such examples are important as the demonstrate the usefulness of hand gestures even without an interpreter. For example, this quote from Don Ferdinand Columbus about his father Christopher’s encounter with “natives”: 

Some of them [the Indians] had scars or wounds on different parts, and being asked by signs how these had been got, they answered by signs that people from other islands came to take them away, and that they had been wounded in their own defence.

When they had completed those forty leagues they came to a small settlement of natives, but they had no interpreter to ask them what they wanted to know. When the natives saw the Spaniards with horses, they were terrified, got into their canoes, and from thence made signs and brought some of their food for the Spaniards. … By signs the natives said that there were no roads and no provisions further on.

The use of hand gestures in trade is not limited to the past. In fact, I would argue it occurs more than ever. Human society is more economically interconnected than it has ever been, People from various parts of the globe often find themselves in other countries for their work. More unfortunately war and environmental disasters continue to displace populations forcing them to interact with unfamiliar cultures. one thing that unites all people is a need to be healthy, which is why hospitals and other medical setting have become hotspots of intercultural interaction, often with a language barrier.

Hospitals usually have interpreters but for reasons discussed later this is not always the case.  The article “Moving towards culturally competent health systems for migrants? applying systems thinking in a qualitative study in Malaysia and Thailand” studied hospitals in Malaysia and Thailand.  The study found that one of the strategies used by doctors to communicate with patients in the absence of an interpreter were hand gestures. “Doctors had several ways of mitigating language barriers with migrant workers, ranging from use of Google translate to sign language or gestures to try and bridge the language gap.” Such findings are in line with those found by other studies in other countries.  For example, a study of pharmacy patients in London, described in the article “Achieving visibility? Use of non-verbal communication in interactions between patients and pharmacists who do not share a common language.” found that:

Non-verbal communication facilitates direct connection between people across a linguistic divide…direct communication may be achieved at a variety of levels by exploring attempts to communicate using limited English, seemingly direct communication when a medical device is being demonstrated and fleeting connections with shared understanding by indicating the relevant body part.

Another study on radiology patients and care providers in Gauteng province South Africa, described in “Overcoming communication barriers in a multicultural radiography setting” found that:

Communication is, however, not only limited to a verbal format. Written communication, such as pamphlets, posters and pictures, and non-verbal communication, such as facial expressions and hand gestures, are also used to relay a message between the patient and the healthcare provider.

All of the above examples demonstrate how hand gestures are often used in modern medical settings when a language barrier is present.

While the use of hand gestures as a substitute for verbal language in the case of a language barrier is indisputable and well documented one might assume that hand gestures are only necessary in the initial stages of contact and that as contact is prolonged more people will learn each other’s language and act as interpreters. 

To a certain extent this is true. In the same study on cultural competency in Malaysia and Thailand, researchers found that visitors to Thailand from groups that had frequent contact with the Thai language had an easier time navigating the local healthcare system, in part because many of them knew the language.

Familiarity with the health system was attributed to length of stay and existing social networks. With the exception of new arrivals, the Rohingya were perceived to have greater system familiarity and better language ability than other groups such as the Chin… Familiarity with the health system was attributed to length of stay and existing social networks. With the exception of new arrivals, the Rohingya were perceived to have greater system familiarity and better language ability than other groups such as the Chin.

Despite this, hand gestures are still employed in these hospital’s because interpreters aren’t always present. “Doctors had several ways of mitigating language barriers with migrant workers, ranging from use of Google translate to sign language or gestures to try and bridge the language gap.”  This is because interpreters are difficult to train. 

It takes more than just knowing another language to be an interpreter, it is a skill that requires understanding of how both cultures communicate, and in the case of medical interpreters it requires knowledge of context specific vocabulary related to a very information dense field, that being medical care. While contact between cultures tends to make more people multilingual, this pool of informal or ad-hoc interpreters cannot be relied on for a variety of reasons, the article “How Language Barriers Impact Patient Care: A Commentary.”, describes these issues well. 

An untrained interpreter, also known as an ad hoc interpreter, may include a family member(s), housekeeper(s), or secretary. Timmins (2002,p. 89) mentioned, “.. .ad hoc interpreters can lead to inaccurate communication and ethical breaches.” Ethical dilemmas that arise with the assistance of ad hoc interpreters include role conflicts and patient confidentiality. A patient may use their child as an interpreter adding a tremendous amount of stress to all involved in the conversation, especially when the content is sensitive and disrupts the family relationship.

Referring back to the study on migrant healthcare in Thailand, the study reported that there were attempts to learn the other language.

Just one doctor in Malaysia mentioned learning migrant languages in order to communicate (MD-1). While in Thailand, short courses for health workers were provided by Provincial Health Office, MOPH, teaching basic communication in Burmese related to health issues and cultural differences. However, there were concerns about time constraints to attend courses. Burmese accents were difficult for doctors to pick up because of different accents among ethnic groups in Myanmar.

This demonstrates the difficulty of training interpreters. It should be noted that in the case of hospitals, where precise communication between doctor and patient could mean the difference between life and death, Hand gestures, while useful, are not an adequate replacement for interpreters.

It is also important to keep in mind that in most cases it is not just two cultures interacting as is the case in countries like South Africa where eleven official languages are spoken, the previously cited article states that “a single interpreter will not be able to comply with the 11 official languages and foreign languages
additionally encountered.”

I believe this hints to one of the reasons why interpreters don’t replace hand gestures, the longer two cultures are in contact with one another, the more they interact. While this does mean people have more opportunities to learn each other’s language and become interpreters, the number of interpreters rarely becomes large enough to meet the demand.

Another reason why interpreters don’t replace hand gestures is that hand gestures are a remarkably useful tool for them. It is well documented that hand gestures can be used to greatly improve the clarity of speech, both in normal speech and interpreted speech. They are useful aids when describing things, and they have even been found to help the gesturer.

Jennifer Gerwing and Shuangyu Li’s paper “Body-oriented gestures as a practitioner’s window into interpreted communication” describes research into doctor patient communication over a language barrier.  The research conducted focused on how hand gestures were used to increase the quality of communication, they found that

Gestures served an important semiotic function: On average, 70% of the doctors’ and patients’ gestures provided information not conveyed in speech. When interpreters repeated the primary participants’ body-oriented gestures, they were highly likely to accompany the gesture with speech that retained the overall utterance meaning. Conversely, when interpreters did not repeat the gesture, their speech tended to lack that information as well.

This perfectly demonstrates the usefulness of hand gestures and how they are excellent tools for interpreters.

Hand gestures have also been shown to have positive effects on the speaker. Robert M. Krauss’s paper Why Do We Gesture When We Speak? presents research on these positive effects

A lexical gesture’s duration is closely related to how long it takes the speaker to access its lexical affiliate… If lexical gestures facilitate lexical retrieval, preventing speakers from gesturing should make lexical retrieval more difficult…It seems clear that gesturing facilitates the production of fluent speech by affecting the ease or difficulty of retrieving words from lexical memory.

I would go further to suggest that if gestures are a useful tool in lexical retrieval, then that means they would be immensely useful in learning and speaking another language, thus making them an even more useful tool for interpreters.

From ancient Greeks to European sailors, to modern hospitals, when people of different languages interact, hand gestures are one of the most useful tools available to them, and it is for that reason that trade between different cultures leads to an increased usage of hand gestures.

References

Gerwing, J., & Li, S. (2019, May 26). Body-oriented gestures as a practitioner’s window into interpreted communication. Social Science & Medicine. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953619303107

Hewes, G. W. (1974, April 4). GESTURE LANGUAGE IN CULTURE CONTACT. Gallaudet University Press. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.rowan.edu/stable/pdf/26203092.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3A96a64e3c92470323313aebe843658f0e&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&origin=&initiator=search-results&acceptTC=1

Pocock, N. S., Chan, Z., Loganathan, T., Suphanchaimat, R., Kosiyaporn, H., Allotey, P., Chan, W.-K., & Tan, D. (2020, April 6). Moving towards culturally competent health systems for migrants? applying systems thinking in a qualitative study in Malaysia and Thailand. PLOS ONE. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0231154

Galvano, F. Beyond Borders: An In-depth Analysis of Cultural Variances in
Non-Verbal Communication Through Gestures and Hands https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Francesco-Galvano/publication/377396770_Beyond_Borders_An_In-depth_Analysis_of_Cultural_Variances_in_Non-Verbal_Communication_Through_Gestures_and_Hands/links/65a41c3dc77ed94047784212/Beyond-Borders-An-In-depth-Analysis-of-Cultural-Variances-in-Non-Verbal-Communication-Through-Gestures-and-Hands.pdf

King, W. S. (1949). Hand gestures. Western Folklore, 8(3), 263–264. https://doi.org/10.2307/1497931

Stevenson, F. (2014, March 19). Achieving visibility? Use of non-verbal communication in interactions between patients and pharmacists who do not share a common language. Wiley Online Library. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1467-9566.12102

Aboul-Enein, F. H., & Ahmed, F. (2006, September 1). How Language Barriers Impact Patient Care: A Commentary. Journal of Cultural Diversity. https://web-p-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.rowan.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=8&sid=8273a53f-394d-4303-b068-c171102b122b%40redis

Vuuren, C. J. van, Dyk, B. van, & Mokoena, P. L. (2021, October 12). Overcoming communication barriers in a multicultural radiography setting. Health SA Gesondheid. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/hsa/article/view/215925

Corballis, M. C. (1999). The Gestural Origins of Language: Human language may have evolved from manual gestures, which survive today as a “behavioral fossil” coupled to speech. American Scientist, 87(2), 138–145. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27857812

Krauss, R. M. (1998). Why Do We Gesture When We Speak? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7(2), 54–60. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182502

Krout, M. H. (1939). Understanding Human Gestures. The Scientific Monthly, 49(2), 167–172. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17039